Correlates of Spiritual Attunement & Academic Performance Amongst College Undergraduates
Abstract
Previous studies have suggested a modest positive correlation between religiosity/spirituality and academic performance. Additional studies are warranted to assess the relationship better. The present correlational research analyzes the relational degree between spiritual attunement and academic aptitude among college students.
This study hypothesizes a medium positive correlation between the two variables. A 28-item R-M-scale (revised Hood Mysticism Scale) was utilized to quantify spirituality, and self-reported Grade Point Average (GPA) was the operational definition for academic performance.
A survey tool was developed, which included a section with six demographic questions and GPA and a section with the 28-item R-M-scale questionnaire. Participants were recruited from various sources (e.g., Facebook) to complete the two-part survey on Google Forms.
Correlation analysis was conducted using the Pearson coefficient ( r ). A total of 37 undergraduates (46% male, 54% female) participated, with an average age of 21 and an average GPA of 3.14. The results from the Pearson analysis revealed a negative medium correspondence (r = – 0. 32391).
The findings suggest that higher GPA scores indicated relatively lower spirituality and vice versa. The negative relational findings may be due to some possible shortcomings of the R-M-scale (e.g., ambiguous wording, complex rating), influenced by the small sample size, or the non-representative nature of the sample (e.g., Caucasian/Christian-Catholic overrepresentation).
Future studies which attempt to quantify spirituality may consider a different instrument of measure (e.g., Revised Mystical Experience Questionnaire [RMEQ-30]) and a larger, more representative sample size.
Keywords: Religiosity, Spiritual Attunement, Hood Mysticism Scale (M-scale), Academic Performance, GPA
PLEASE NOTE: This study was conducted as part of a university course.
Introduction
U.S. Colleges and Universities are a bastion of academic excellence boasting innovations in both the sciences and humanities. As part of the student body, students feel compelled to measure up to the high academic levels of performance of their respective institutions and to become competitive for short-term and long-term goals.
High academic aptitude, as measured by Grade Point Average (GPA), is needed for students to achieve short-term goals such as qualifying for merit scholarships and entry into high-demand majors. More significantly, a strong GPA is required for students to be competitive for graduate programs as well as highly sought-after entry-level employment positions.
Hence, attaining a high GPA as a measure of academic performance is of crucial concern for students at notable universities. Therefore, the development of activities to enhance student performance, such as non-academic auxiliary support programs, is of value to investigate since academic performance is an essential point of focus across U.S. college campuses.
Previous studies have shown that religiosity and spirituality are essential in predicting academic performance (Walker & Dixon, 2002; Trockel, Barnes, & Egget, 2000). The study by Walker and Dixon (2002) examined the difference between spirituality, as defined as a transcendent belief system that guides daily behavior, and religiosity, often associated with formal church affiliation, within the context of academic performance.
The study was conducted among 192 European-American and African-American college students. A correlation analysis determined a positive linear association (Walker & Dixon, 2002). Specifically, the religiosity and spirituality of the participants had a positive correlation with academic aptitude. These findings were true for both European American (r = .23), as well as for African-American (r = .33) college students (Walker & Dixon, 2002).
A separate study by Trockel et al. (2000) examined a set of health-related behaviors in 200 college students to identify which practices contribute to academic performance. The study examined a wide range of variables, including diet, sleep, exercise, stress management, social support as well as spiritual and religious habits.
The results suggested that physical exercise and the study of mystical literature and materials had a positive association with academic performance. Specifically, the two variables above (i.e., exercise and spiritually oriented materials) were positively correlated (r = .24) with higher GPA scores (Trockel et al., 2000).
Together the two aforementioned studies suggest that spirituality is an essential component that can contribute to academic achievement. Given the focus of educational institutions on achieving academic excellence, it was of value to investigate the relationship between spirituality and academic performance on U.S. college campuses.
A survey-based correlational study was carried out to investigate the relationship, if any, between the two main research variables (i.e., spirituality and academic aptitude). This study collected self-reported demographic and academic information from college undergraduates.
In order to assess and quantify spirituality, the study administered a questionnaire utilizing a revised version of the Hood Mysticism Scale (M-Scale; Hood [1969]). Together the results were assessed for statistical correlation between academic and spiritual factors.
Specifically, this study hypothesizes that the findings would divulge a positive medium correlation between personal spiritual attunement and academic performance among college undergraduates.
Participants
This correlational study was focused on the young adult age cohort of U.S. college undergraduates. The target number of participants for this research was 40 individuals, and the actual number of participants was N=37.
Consistent with the age demographic of this subsection of young adults (i.e., between the ages of 18 to 22 years), the mean age of this study population sample was roughly 20 years of age. The study anticipated controlling for age by excluding results that fall outside the objective age range of 18 – 28 years.
However, this was not necessary as the age of all 37 participants was within the target age range. The study did not utilize specific measures to control for ethnicity or for religious dispositions.
Nonetheless, granted the diverse nature of most U.S. college campuses (e.g., UCI), extraneous factors such as race, culture, or faith were anticipated to be more or less homogenous. This optimistic assumption proved to be incorrect.
Due to limited time and resources, the gender ratio for this study was also not controlled. It was expected for the ratio of the participants also to reflect the gender ratio of most U.S. college campuses (e.g., UCI), with females being slightly overrepresented than males.
Fortunately, this observation proved to be correct. Participants were mostly recruited through social media outlets (e.g., Facebook) and various college organizations (e.g., Psych Club in Pasadena City College). Students were asked to complete an online Google Forms survey. Participants were not offered any formal incentives for taking part in this study.
Design
This study employed a survey-based correlational design. The two variables of interest were spiritual attunement and academic performance. Both research variables were designed to be continuous.
The assessment of the former variable was based on a revised version of the Hood Mysticism Scale, the R-M scale. The R-M scale contains 28-items instead of the 32 questions on the original M-scale. The standard measure of the second continuous variable (i.e., academic performance) was the participants’ GPA based on self-report.
Measures
Hood Mysticism Scale (M-scale)
The person’s level of spiritual attunement was operationally quantified by the Hood Mysticism Scale (M-scale). The M-scale is considered a valid tool for measuring spirituality (MacLean, Leoutsakos, Johnson, & Griffiths, 2012).
The Hood Mysticism Scale is a 32-item questionnaire ascertaining various supernatural phenomena and mystical experiences (Hood, 1975). The M-scale encompasses 8 major sub-categories.
They are as follows: ego quality (E), unifying quality (U), inner subjective quality (Is), temporal/ spatial quality (T), noetic quality (N), ineffability (I), positive affect (P), and religious quality (R).
Walter T. Stacy originally outlined the 8 mystical categories in his 1960s book Mysticism and Philosophy (Hood, 1975). All 32 items on the M-scale are coded using the same format, with values ranging from -2 to + 2, including absolute 0; (- 2 = definitely not true, + 2 = definitely true, 0 = undecided/blank).
For this study, the original M-scale created by Hood was slightly modified. In accordance with Dr. Zinger’s suggestion, one of the eight sub-categories of the original M-scales was omitted.
The pretest of the stimulus material revealed that the 32-items on the M-scale may be too time-consuming. Consequently, the 4-items that compose the ‘noetic quality (N)’ dimension of the M-scale are not included in this revised version; the R-M-scale.
A question that exemplifies the noetic quality (N) of spirituality is the following: “I have had an experience in which ultimate reality was revealed to me” (Hood, 1975). Following the scoring rubric of the Hood Mysticism Scale, the items on the R-M scale are also scored by assigning a value of +1, -1 or, +2, -2 for each of the 28 questions.
Participants were permitted to avoid questions they perceived to be ambiguous. The M-scale (as well as the R-M-scale), enables participants to rate unclear questions with a question mark (?). The participants were also at liberty to altogether omit questions that they found to be intrusive.
The survey items that were question marked, in addition to questions that were left blank, were assigned a value of 0. Scores on the original M Scale can range from 32 to 160, from least to most spiritual, respectively (Hood, 1975). On this revised version (R-M-scale), the possible range of scores are from 28 to 140; with a score of 28 being low and 140 forming the high end of the spirituality gamut.
Academic Performance
Grade Point Average (GPA) is perceived as one of the best measures of academic success (or failure) within a college setting (Caskie, Sutton, & Eckhardt, 2014). For this study, a college GPA served as the operational definition for the assessment of academic aptitude.
The proper measure of GPA as a research variable, like the spiritual attunement variable, was based on the researcher’s good faith in the participants. It was hoped (and assumed) that participants would provide an honest and accurate self-report to all questions, especially since their identity remained anonymous.
The self-reported GPA scores are especially vulnerable to bias if the participants are underachievers. Such persons tend to present an inflated GPA score on questionnaires (Caskie et al., 2014).
The range of possible college GPA scores stems from 0.0, representing the low end of the spectrum, to 4.0, representing absolute academic excellence. As a continuous variable, the question in regards to the GPA was phrased in the survey in an open-ended format.
Demographic Data
The survey also contained 6 demographic questions. In addition to disclosing their college GPA, participants were asked to reveal their sex, age, ethnicity, college year, and religious affiliation. While GPA was one of the operationalized research variables, the other demographic measures were intended to assess the characteristics of the research sample.
In addition to the GPA, the survey question pertaining to age was also phrased in an open-ended format. The other 4 demographic questions (sex, ethnicity, year in college, and religious affiliation) were fixed alternatives. In addition to having fixed-alternative choices, the questions pertaining to ethnicity and religious affiliation also offer an open-ended option (i.e., Other).
Procedures
The sampling procedure used for this correlational study was an online Google Forms survey. At the beginning of the survey, before proceeding to answer the survey questions, participants were presented with an informed consent form.
Informed consent is an attempt by a researcher to convey some of their expectations to the participant, as well as to inform the participant about some of the sensitive nuances of the study. For this study, after reading the consent form, the participants demonstrated their willingness to participate by clicking Next at the bottom of the page.
Once consent was granted, individuals were required to answer six demographic questions. In the subsequent section, participants were asked to complete a 28-item R- M-scale questionnaire to assess their level of spiritual attunement.
The survey took approximately 10 minutes to complete. Once participants submitted their responses, they were presented with a debriefing statement. The informed consent form and debriefing statement contained the researcher’s contact information. Individuals were not incentivized for their participation.
Results
Descriptive statistics were collected and presented using frequency for gender, ethnicity, year in school, and religious affiliation. The average and range were used to present the descriptive data for the age and GPA of the participants.
For this correlational study, the statistical test utilized to calculate the degree of association between the two research variables was the Pearson Correlation Coefficient (r). The r-value, ranging from -1 to +1, exemplifies the relational degree between two variables of interest (Ray, 2012).
Specifically, it indicates the strength and direction of a linear association between two different phenomena. A positive r-value is indicative of a positive relationship. That is, an increase in one variable leads to an increase in the other (Ray, 2012).
A negative r-value suggests a negative relationship and operates on the inverse principle of the former (i.e., an increase in one variable is associated with a decrease in the other). An r-value of 0 advocates no correlation between the two variables.
The variables tested using the Pearson (r) statistical measure were spiritual attunement, as exemplified by the total individual score on the revised M-scale (i.e., R-M-scale), and academic performance, as operationalized by the participants’ overall college GPA.
Both research variables are/were continuous in nature. The range of possible scores for the R-M scale is between 28 to 140. The range of possible GPA scores is between 0.0 to 4.00 GPA. The r-value was calculated using MS Excel (Version 10). The correlation was plotted using a scatterplot on Excel.
A total of 37 college undergraduates took part in this study. Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics of the participants. The average age of participants was 21.11 years old (range: 18-24 years old). Roughly equal numbers of males and females completed the survey (17 males [45.9%] and 20 females [54.1%]).
The most prevalent ethnicity among participants was Caucasian (20 participants or 54.1%), followed by Asian-American (9 participants or 24.3%), then by Hispanics (5 participants or 13.5%), followed by African-Americans (2 participants or 5.4%), and Other (Iranian – 1 participant or 2.7%).
The religious affiliation most frequently observed was Christian- Catholic (19 participants or 51.4%), followed by Agnostic (6 participants or 16.2%), then Buddhist (5 participants or 13.5%), followed by Jewish (3 participants or 8.1%), then by Atheist (2 participants or 5.4%), followed by Muslim and Other (Zoroastrian), each with (1 participant or 2.7%). The average GPA among participants was 3.14, ranging from 2.50 to 3.90.
The detailed distribution of GPA and the R-M-scale (i.e., spiritual attunement scores) for all participants are provided in Table 2. The scatter plot distribution and Pearson ( r) analysis are provided in Figure 1. The Pearson Correlation Coefficient; that is, the effect size for the association between the two research variables, was -0.32 (r = -0.32); with a variance of 0.1049 (R² = 0.1049).
These results are consistent with the preliminary interim findings: suggesting a negative medium correlation between the two variables (Figure 1). Specifically, Pearson’s (r) analysis demonstrates that, on average, individuals with a higher GPA scored relatively lower on the R-M scale.
Discussion
The derived Pearson r-value (r= -0.32) from the correlation analysis did not substantiate the proposed hypothesis (i.e., medium positive relationship). On the contrary, the findings of this study revealed an inverse associative direction in relation to the hypothesis.
Contrary to the medium positive correspondence, this study demonstrated a medium negative linear correlation between spiritual attunement and academic performance. The most viable explanation for this unexpected phenomenon, which is in disagreement with the results of previous studies (e.g., Walker & Dixon, 2002), may be attributed to procedural shortcomings.
The M-scale as a spirituality measure may be an overwhelming, complex, and taxing instrument. The wording of some of the questions on the M-scale, as well as some of the situations and scenarios described therein, may have been perceived as ambiguous by the participants. As such, it may have been difficult for some participants to ascribe an accurate rating for abstruse M-scale items.
An alternative explanation for this research findings may be attributed to the inherent biases of the research sample. Almost all the participants were most likely psychology students. As intellectuals and future scientists, such persons tend to favor the more realistic and practical, as opposed to supernatural explanations for ambiguous experiences and phenomena.
Subsequently, when considering the personal relevance of the proposed mystical questions, they may have placed less emphasis on ascribed unusual phenomena as extraordinary.
The purpose of correlational research is to propose a relationship but not to infer causation (Ray, 2012). Nonetheless, a low correlation implies a lack of causation; and a significantly high relationship is required to suggest that one variable may have caused another (Ray, 2012).
Considering that the derived r-value of this current study is indicative of a medium correlation (i.e., not high or low), we can neither suggest nor exclude causal inferences regarding the two research variables. Additionally, we need to ponder the possible impact of a third, unmeasured variable which the study did not control for (Ray, 2012).
As mentioned above, this could be ascribed to the biased dispositions of psychology students. Additionally, some of the limitations of this particular study can be attributed to the small sample size as well as to the non-representative nature of the sample demographics.
For example, some demographic features such as “Caucasian” and “Christian-Catholic” were overrepresented in this study. While others, such as “African- American” and “Muslim,” are underrepresented.
Future studies examining the relationship between spirituality and academic aptitude may also consider a different spirituality measure (e.g., Revised Mystical Experience Questionnaire [RMEQ-30]). Additionally, a more valid measure of GPA other than self-report should also be considered – such as the GPA from a copy of the student transcripts.
As noted by Caskie et al. (2014), self-report of GPA scores tend to be inflated. Interestingly, in this current study, 25 out of the 37 participants reported GPA scores of 3.0 and above. However, it is impossible to conclude that most reported scores were less accurate.
It is quite possible that the study mainly appealed to students with slightly higher academic performance in the 3.0 + GPA range. Furthermore, future studies should also attempt to control the distribution of some demographic features (e.g., religious affiliation), which this current study neglected. A more diverse research sample could better inform the results.
These research findings, if valid, could have significant implications. The results could inform institutional policymakers regarding investment in additional auxiliary services that support or promote spirituality to enhance student performance.
While spirituality may serve as an essential part of student health in terms of mind and body balance, the present results do not suggest that it would impact the GPA of college students. Other services, such as additional tutoring centers or individualized learning plans for struggling students, maybe more beneficial in improving GPA than spirituality-promoting ventures Results should be validated in larger, more diverse studies before implementing new policies.
References
Caskie, G. I. L., Sutton, M. C., & Eckhardt, A.G. (2014). Accuracy of Self-Reported College
GPA: Gender-Moderated Differences by Achievement Level and Academic Self-Efficacy. Journal of College Student Development, 55 (4), 385-390. doi: 10.1353/csd.2014.0038
Hood, W. R. (1975). The Construction and Preliminary Validation of a Measure of Reported
Mystical Experience*. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 14(1), 29- 40.
MacLean, K. A., Leoutsakos, J. S., Johnson, M. W., & Griffiths, R. R. (2012). Factor Analysis of
the Mystical Experience Questionnaire: A Study of Experiences Occasioned by the Hallucinogen Psilocybin. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 51(4), 721-737
Trockel. M. T., Barnes, M. D., & Egget, D. L. (2000). Health-Related Variables and Academic
Performance Among First-Year College Students: Implications for Sleep and Other Behaviors, Journal of American College Health, 49 (3), 125-131, doi: 10.1080/07448480009596294
Walker, K. L., & Dixon, V. (2002). Spirituality and Academic Performance Among African
American College Students. Journal of Black Psychology, 28 (2), 107-121
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